Attachment Theory

Attachment Theory

Attachment Theory is a theory that explains the fundamental causes of long-term human relationships. The core claim of this theory is that for an infant to develop normal emotional and social capabilities, they must form a bond with one or more primary caregivers. Attachment theory is based on interdisciplinary research, encompassing psychology, evolutionary biology, and zoology. After World War II, there were many orphans and homeless children who faced difficulties in forming social relationships. The United Nations tasked John Bowlby, a psychoanalyst and psychotherapist, with writing a document on this issue. Based on this experience, Bowlby developed the foundational ideas of attachment theory, which was further developed by the research and data of Mary Ainsworth and James Robertson.

 

Babies form attachment relationships with adults who are consistently sensitive and responsive to their needs over several months, typically between six months and two years of age. As babies begin to crawl or walk, they use a familiar attachment figure as a "safe base" from which to explore their environment and to which they return. The responses of the parents during this period influence the type of attachment formed, which in turn affects the baby's perceptions, emotions, and expectations of future relationships. In attachment theory, separation anxiety due to distance from the attachment figure is considered a normal response to the baby's need for adaptation. Evolutionary biologists suggest that such behavior evolved to increase a child's chances of survival.

 

Children with an attachment relationship typically exhibit behaviors aimed at keeping the attachment figure nearby. To develop a theory of attachment formation in early life, John Bowlby integrated knowledge from various fields, including evolutionary biology, object relations theory (a branch of psychoanalysis), control systems theory, zoology, and cognitive psychology. After publishing a brief paper in 1958, Bowlby expanded his research into a three-volume series titled "Attachment and Loss," published between 1969 and 1982.

 

Developmental psychologist Mary Ainsworth, during the 1960s and 1970s, reinforced the basic concepts of attachment theory and introduced the concept of the "secure base." She developed a theory of various attachment patterns observed in babies. Ainsworth categorized three attachment patterns: secure attachment, insecure-avoidant attachment, and insecure-ambivalent attachment. A fourth pattern, disorganized attachment, was discovered later.

 

In the 1980s, this theory was expanded to include adult attachment relationships. Studies showed that not only parent-child relationships but also friendships, romantic relationships, and sexual attraction could be explained by elements of attachment behavior.

 

In the early stages of the theory, psychologists criticized Bowlby, claiming that he deviated from the core of psychoanalysis. However, attachment theory has since become the dominant approach for understanding early social development and has prompted extensive empirical research on children's relationship formation. Despite some criticism regarding the limits of attachment pattern classification and the complexity of social relationships, attachment theory has undergone significant revisions through empirical research, and its core tenets are widely accepted in academia. The theory has influenced new forms of psychotherapy and existing therapeutic practices and has impacted social and childcare policies.

 

Attachment

In attachment theory, "attachment" refers to the emotional bond between an individual and an attachment figure, usually a caregiver. This bond is a mutual interaction between two adults, but in the case of a child and a caregiver, it is based on the child’s need for stability, safety, and protection. The theory posits that children instinctively seek out caregivers to increase their chances of survival and, ultimately, genetic replication. The biological goal is survival, while the psychological goal is stability. Attachment theory does not entirely explain human relationships or equate to love and affection but asserts that such bonds exist. In the child-adult relationship, the child's bond is called "attachment," while the caregiver’s reciprocal bond is termed the "care-giving bond."

 

Infants form attachments with caregivers who engage in consistent social interactions and responses with them. The quality of social participation has a greater impact than the amount of time spent together. The biological mother is usually the central attachment figure, but anyone who consistently engages in caregiving can assume this role. The theory suggests that fathers can also become primary attachment figures if they provide most of the caregiving and social interaction, contrary to the notion that they cannot take on this role as readily as mothers.

 

Some infants begin to show preferences among caregivers, displaying attachment behaviors such as proximity seeking with one or more attachment figures, typically around the age of two. A hierarchy forms among these figures, with the primary attachment figure at the top. The goal of the attachment behavioral system is to maintain a bond with an accessible attachment figure. Terms like "alarm" describe the activation of this system due to the fear of danger, and "anxiety" refers to the fear of being separated from the attachment figure.

 

When the attachment figure is not accessible or responsive, separation anxiety occurs. For infants, physical separation can lead to anxiety, anger, and subsequent sadness and despair. By the age of 3-4, physical separation is no longer a significant threat to the attachment bond. Threats to safety for children and adults involve signals of prolonged absence, communication breakdowns, emotional unavailability, rejection, or abandonment.

 

Behavior

The attachment behavioral system functions to approach or maintain closeness to the attachment figure.

Pre-attachment behaviors occur within the first six months of life. During the first stage (up to 8 weeks old), infants smile, coo, or cry to attract the attention of potential caregivers. While they begin to distinguish between caregivers, these behaviors are displayed to others as well.

 

In the second stage (2-6 months), infants differentiate between familiar and unfamiliar adults, showing greater responsiveness to caregivers and varying behaviors like dependence or clinging. The infant’s behavior toward the caregiver is organized based on achieving conditions of stability.

 

By the end of the first year, infants display attachment behaviors that aim to maintain closeness to the caregiver. These behaviors include resisting separation, expressing joy upon the caregiver's return, clinging when frightened, and following the caregiver’s lead. As infants start walking, they use the caregiver as a "safe base" from which to explore their environment. Exploration increases when the caregiver is nearby because the attachment system is relaxed, allowing for unrestrained exploration. When unable to approach the caregiver or when the caregiver is unresponsive, attachment behaviors become more pronounced. Anxiety, fear, illness, or fatigue increase the frequency of attachment behaviors.

 

After the age of two, as children begin to see the caregiver as an independent individual, more complex, goal-oriented relationships form. Children start to recognize others' intentions and emotions and adjust their behavior accordingly. For instance, newborns cry out of pain, but two-year-olds cry to call the caregiver, and if this is ineffective, they may cry louder, shout, or become clingy.

 

Principles

Modern attachment theory is based on three principles that imply bonding as an intrinsic human need: emotional regulation, increased survival chances due to fear, and the enhancement of adaptation and growth. General attachment behaviors and emotions are observed in most social primates, including humans, and can be adjusted. Over time, primates have evolved to select social behaviors that favor the survival of individuals or groups.

 

The typical attachment behavior observed in toddlers—staying close to familiar individuals—provided a safety advantage in early adaptive environments and continues to do so today. Bowlby believed that the early adaptive environment was similar to today’s hunter-gatherer societies. Recognizing potentially dangerous conditions such as unfamiliarity, being alone, or rapid approach offers a survival advantage. According to Bowlby, proximity seeking towards the attachment figure in the face of threats is the "set-goal" of the attachment behavioral system.

 

Bowlby’s claim of a sensitive period for attachment formation between six months and two to three years has been revised by subsequent researchers. While a sensitive period for attachment formation exists, it is broader than initially proposed, and the effects of attachment formed during this period are not as fixed or irreversible as once thought.

 

As research progressed, attachment theorists came to understand that social development can occur not only through early-life relationships but also through subsequent relationships. Early stages of attachment are most easily developed with a single primary caregiver or occasionally with a few others. According to Bowlby, many children from the outset exhibit attachment behavior towards more than one figure, and these figures are not treated equally. Children have a strong predisposition to direct their attachment behaviors toward a specific figure, a concept Bowlby termed "monotropy." Researchers and theorists did not fully accept this concept, as it implies that forming a relationship with a specific figure is qualitatively different from forming relationships with others. Recent theories instead posit a clear hierarchy of relationships.

 

Early experiences with caregivers gradually shape a system of thoughts, memories, beliefs, expectations, emotions, and behaviors regarding the self and others. This system, known as the "internal working model of social relationships," continues to develop over time and through experience.

 

The internal working model regulates, interprets, and predicts attachment-related behaviors in the self and the attachment figure. As it develops with environmental and growth changes, the internal working model enables the individual to think about and express past and future attachment relationships. Through the internal working model, children can manage new types of social interactions, such as recognizing that different interactions are required with peers compared to parents or teachers. The internal working model continues to develop into adulthood, influencing friendships, romantic relationships, and parent-child relationships, each associated with different behaviors and emotions.

The development of attachment is a transactional process.

 

Specific attachment behaviors in infancy are predictable and originate from innate behaviors. These behaviors change with age, determined by experience or situation. The way attachment behaviors change with age mirrors the way relationships are formed. A child’s attachment behavior upon reuniting with a caregiver is determined not only by how the caregiver has treated the child previously but also by the accumulation of the child’s influences on the caregiver.